Prudence

Virtue Cardinal

Definition

Dictionary

Merriam-Webster 1

  • The ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason.
  • Sagacity or shrewdness in the management of affairs
    • (Sagacious: a keen and farsighted penetration and judgment; caused by or indicating acute discernment)
  • Skill and good judgment in the use of resources
  • Caution of circumspection as to danger or risk

Lutheranism

The Lutheran tradition does not treat the virtue of prudence as a “labeled” cardinal virtue as the Catholic Church does. Indirectly, this tradition relies in fallowing the Lord’s commandments, naturall and civil law, and distinguishing between what has been revealed and what requires the intervention of the Holy Spirit at the moment of decision making.

Prudence is not explicit in the Apologies, but it can be said that Article IV stress on how to make decisions with the right confidence: confidence in Christ’s mercy, not confidence in one’s own fulfillment of the Law.

Apology XVIII adds another discernment rule: don’t treat all “obedience-like” behavior as if it were the same thing as the spiritual righteousness God requires.

Humans have freedom for outward “civil righteousness”

The Apology says the human will has liberty in choices that reason comprehends:

“The human will has liberty… It can… render civil righteousness… obey magistrates, parents;… restrain the hands from murder, from adultery…” (Ap XVIII.70)

That informs “practical prudence”: you can make real outward moral choices without immediately concluding that the heart is rightly related to God.

But the decisive “first-table” acts require the Holy Ghost Then the Apology draws a sharp line: what matters most—fear God, trust God, be confident God hears/forgives—cannot be produced by the unregenerate human heart:

“yet we do not ascribe to free will these spiritual matters, namely, truly to fear God, truly to believe God, truly to be confident…” (Ap XVIII.73)

“These are the true works of the First Table, which the heart cannot render without the Holy Ghost.” (Ap XVIII.73)

So prudence (in the confessional sense) includes knowing what you cannot do by yourself—especially in times when you must decide what “spiritual progress” actually is. It prevents self-deception.

A Christian uses wisdom or uprighteousness to determine:

  • how best to serve neighbor
  • how to live faithfully within one’s calling (family, work, society)

But prudence is subordinate to faith and does not justify. Furthermore, the Apologies make emphasis in the right order of teaching: Law vs. promise, and faith vs. self-merit.

Contrast with Aquinas

Topic Thomas Aquinas Classical Lutheranism 2
Definition of Prudence Prudence is recta ratio agibilium (“right reason applied to action”), the virtue that enables correct practical judgment. Prudence is generally understood as practical wisdom and sound judgment in earthly affairs, exercised through reason, vocation, and conscience under God’s Word.
Role in Moral Life Prudence is the “charioteer of the virtues” (auriga virtutum), directing all other moral virtues. Prudence is valuable but does not occupy the central organizing role found in Thomistic ethics. Faith, vocation, and the Word of God are more fundamental categories.
Source of Moral Knowledge Natural law and practical reason provide genuine moral knowledge, perfected by grace. ST I-II Q94, II-II Q47, I Q1 Scripture is the supreme authority. Natural reason retains significant usefulness in temporal affairs, though it cannot lead to saving faith.
Human Reason After the Fall Reason is wounded but retains substantial capacity to know moral truth. ST I-II Q85, Q94, 109; ST I Q79; ST II-II Q47 Reason remains capable of governing civil life and making practical judgments but is unable to know God rightly apart from the Gospel.
Prudence in Unbelievers Unbelievers can possess natural prudence, though imperfectly. Unbelievers can exercise genuine prudence and wisdom in civil affairs through God’s preserving activity in creation.
Relationship to Grace Grace grants infused prudence, producing supernatural prudence ordered to God. Grace does not primarily elevate prudence into a higher virtue but renews the whole person through faith, enabling faithful service in vocation.
Relationship to Virtue Ethics Prudence is central to a comprehensive virtue ethics framework. Classical Lutheranism retains virtue language but does not organize ethics around the virtues. Law/Gospel, vocation, faith, and neighbor-love are primary.
Highest Principle of Moral Action Prudence directs action toward the good in accordance with reason and ultimately God. Faith working through love in obedience to God’s Word directs moral action.
Primary Ethical Question “What does right reason require in this situation?” “How may I faithfully serve God and my neighbor in my vocation?”
Civil Society Prudence is necessary for good governance, law, and social order. Prudence is essential for temporal government, family life, education, commerce, and civic responsibility.
Orientation of Virtue Virtues are perfected when ordered toward God as the highest good. ST I-II Q1-5; ST Q II-II Q23 Good works and virtues flow from faith but do not contribute to justification before God.
Justification and Prudence Prudence contributes to moral excellence but cannot itself merit salvation apart from grace. Prudence may be an admirable virtue, but justification is by faith alone and never by virtue.
Moral Framework Virtue → Prudence → Right Action Faith → Vocation → Discernment → Loving Service of Neighbor
Representative Texts Summa Theologiae II-II, qq. 47–56 Apology of the Augsburg Confession IV & XVIII; Formula of Concord II & VI
Representative Modern Scholars Jean Porter, Servais Pinckaers, Romanus Cessario Gustaf Wingren, Oswald Bayer, Gilbert Meilaender
  1. The Book of Concord 3
    • Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Articles IV and XVIII.
    • Formula of Concord, Articles II and VI.
  2. Luther, Temporal Authority: To What Extent It Should Be Obeyed (1523) 4
  3. Catholic Encyclopedia
    • Prudence Article 5

Calvinism

Reformed theology typically does not foreground the classical “virtues” map (cardinal virtues) in the way Thomistic moral theology does, but it still teaches that the Spirit forms real moral excellences (often framed as fruits of faith/sanctification and as obedience shaped by Scripture). In many Reformed presentations, justification is by faith alone, while good works/obedience are the fruit of faith (so moral character and “wisdom for living” are Spirit-shaped). Practical wisdom is valued, yet it is never an autonomous moral guide independent of God’s revealed will. Catholicism regards prudence as a cardinal virtue whereas Calvinism often treats “wise discernment” (prudence / practical wisdom) as something the Spirit renews and trains through sanctification, rather than as a standalone virtue-category that forms a stable moral habit the way classical accounts do.

Reformed theology commonly links civil practical wisdom to God’s providential common grace.

Whenever we come upon these matters in secular writers, let that admirable light of truth shining in them teach us that the mind of man, though fallen and perverted from its integrity, is nevertheless clothed and ornamented with God’s excellent gifts. 6

Calvinism seems to make a distinction between spiritual wisdom (the term used that matches best prudence) and civil virtue. Since the fall humanity has retained the use of reason for civil affairs; however, reason is corrupted for spiritual matters. [^inst2]

This tradition makes much emphasis in Scripture, in terms of prudence this is a representative passage: “For the LORD gives wisdom; From His mouth come knowledge and understanding.” (Prov. 2:6) In other words, the Lord has given us his Word as the rule of all wisdom. Scripture is not merely one input among others; it is the normative rule that orders wisdom toward God’s glory.

Many people assume that Calvin simply rejected virtue ethics. Some contemporary scholarship argues Calvin can be read within a broader Christian virtue tradition (though not identical to classical Aristotelian/Thomistic frameworks). 7

Contrast with Aquinas

Topic Thomas Aquinas Classical Calvinism 8
Definition of Prudence Prudence is recta ratio agibilium (“right reason applied to action”), the virtue that enables correct practical judgment. Prudence is sanctified practical wisdom exercised under the authority of Scripture, discerning the wisest course of action for God’s glory.
Role in Moral Life Prudence is the “charioteer of the virtues” (auriga virtutum), directing all other moral virtues. Reformed ethics tends to order life primarily by union with Christ / faith and obedience to Scripture, while prudence/practical discernment is treated as Spirit-given wisdom within that framework.
Source of Moral Knowledge Natural law and practical reason provide genuine moral knowledge, perfected by grace. ST I-II Q94, II-II Q47, I Q1 Scripture is the supreme authority. Common grace preserves practical wisdom in earthly matters, while saving grace renews moral judgment for obedience to God.
Human Reason After the Fall Reason is wounded but retains substantial capacity to know moral truth. ST I-II Q85, Q94, 109; ST I Q79; ST II-II Q47 Human reason remains capable of governing civil life and making practical judgments but is incapable of saving knowledge apart from divine grace.
Prudence in Unbelievers Unbelievers can possess natural prudence, though imperfectly. Unbelievers possess genuine prudence in civil affairs through God’s common grace and providential preservation of creation.
Relationship to Grace Grace grants infused prudence, producing supernatural prudence ordered to God. Saving grace renews the believer’s judgment through the Holy Spirit, enabling prudence increasingly conformed to God’s Word.
Relationship to Virtue Ethics Prudence is central to a comprehensive virtue ethics framework. Calvinism affirms a theological virtue ethics in which virtues are renewed by the Holy Spirit and directed toward obedience to God under the authority of Scripture.
Highest Principle of Moral Action Prudence directs action toward the good in accordance with reason and ultimately God. Wise obedience according to God’s revealed Word, directed toward the glory of God.
Primary Ethical Question “What does right reason require in this situation?” “What course of action most faithfully conforms to God’s Word and glorifies Him?”
Civil Society Prudence is necessary for good governance, law, and social order. Prudence is essential for civil government, vocation, family life, and the wise ordering of society.
Orientation of Virtue Virtues are perfected when ordered toward God as the highest good. ST I-II Q1-5; ST II-II Q23 Christian prudence is exercised in thankful obedience and sanctification, aiming at God’s glory rather than human flourishing alone.
Justification and Prudence Prudence contributes to moral excellence but cannot itself merit salvation apart from grace. Prudence is a fruit of sanctification and never contributes to justification, which is by faith alone.
Moral Framework Virtue → Prudence → Right Action Scripture → Faith → Sanctification → Prudence → Obedient Action
Representative Texts Summa Theologiae II-II, qq. 47–56 Institutes of the Christian Religion II.2; III.6–10; IV.20; Westminster Confession of Faith 1.6, 16, 19, 23
Representative Modern Scholars Jean Porter, Servais Pinckaers, Romanus Cessario David Sytsma, Richard A. Muller, David VanDrunen, Michael Horton

Methodism (Check References)

Everything—including judgment, planning, discipline, and practical wisdom—is evaluated by whether it serves holy love. 9 Wesley gives more importance to reason than other protestants. He says “reason is a precious gift from God,” but always emphasizes that reason needs to remain subordinate to Scripture and the Holy Spirit. [^cori]

Wesley writes: “I want to know one thing—the way to heaven.” So, in his view Scripture provides the rule, while reason helps apply it wisely. In other words prudence therefore consists in applying biblical truth faithfully to particular situations, or prudence is the virtue that guides believers in applying Christian love wisely in daily life. [^sso]

Prudence development is not seen as infused as in the Thomistic view; instead, prudence develops as believers grow in holiness through sanctifying grace.

Growth in holiness includes growth in:

  • judgment
  • discernment
  • self-government
  • practical wisdom

These belong to the process of entire sanctification.

Role

Prudence helps Christians:

  • choose actions consistent with love of God and neighbor
  • grow in sanctification.

Contrast with Aquinas

Topic Thomas Aquinas Classical Methodism (Wesleyan Tradition) [^methodism]
Definition of Prudence Prudence is recta ratio agibilium (“right reason applied to action”), the virtue that enables correct practical judgment. Prudence is sanctified practical wisdom exercised through reason under the guidance of Scripture and the Holy Spirit, enabling believers to choose the most loving and faithful course of action.
Role in Moral Life Prudence is the “charioteer of the virtues” (auriga virtutum), directing all other moral virtues. Prudence helps believers faithfully apply Scripture in daily life as they grow in holiness through sanctification, but love rather than prudence occupies the central place in Christian ethics.
Source of Moral Knowledge Natural law and practical reason provide genuine moral knowledge, perfected by grace. ST I-II Q94, II-II Q47, I Q1 Scripture is the supreme authority. Reason, tradition, and Christian experience assist believers in wisely applying biblical truth under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
Human Reason After the Fall Reason is wounded but retains substantial capacity to know moral truth. ST I-II Q85, Q94, 109; ST I Q79; ST II-II Q47 Reason remains a precious gift of God and is capable of discerning truth, but it must be governed by Scripture and renewed through sanctifying grace.
Prudence in Unbelievers Unbelievers can possess natural prudence, though imperfectly.  
Relationship to Grace Grace grants infused prudence, producing supernatural prudence ordered to God. Sanctifying grace transforms the whole person, enabling increasingly faithful judgment and practical wisdom through the work of the Holy Spirit.
Relationship to Virtue Ethics Prudence is central to a comprehensive virtue ethics framework. Wesley did not formulate a systematic virtue ethics, yet his theology is widely understood as emphasizing the formation of holy character through sanctifying grace, within which prudence functions as practical wisdom.
Highest Principle of Moral Action Prudence directs action toward the good in accordance with reason and ultimately God. Holy love—love of God and neighbor—directs moral action, with prudence serving love through faithful discernment.
Primary Ethical Question “What does right reason require in this situation?” “What course of action most faithfully expresses love of God and neighbor according to Scripture?”
Civil Society Prudence is necessary for good governance, law, and social order.  
Orientation of Virtue Virtues are perfected when ordered toward God as the highest good. ST I-II Q1-5; ST II-II Q23  
Justification and Prudence Prudence contributes to moral excellence but cannot itself merit salvation apart from grace. Prudence is a fruit of sanctification and holy living but contributes nothing to justification, which is received through faith by grace.
Moral Framework Virtue → Prudence → Right Action Scripture → Faith → Sanctification → Holy Love → Prudence → Faithful Action
Representative Texts Summa Theologiae II-II, qq. 47–56 The Case of Reason Impartially Considered; Sermons on Several Occasions (Preface); “The Means of Grace” (Sermon 16); “The Use of Money” (Sermon 50)
Representative Modern Scholars Jean Porter, Servais Pinckaers, Romanus Cessario Randy L. Maddox, Kenneth J. Collins, Theodore Runyon, Richard P. Heitzenrater

Whereas Aquinas treats prudence as the cardinal virtue that perfects practical reason and directs the moral life, classical Methodism locates moral transformation within the work of sanctifying grace and the pursuit of holy love. Prudence remains an important Christian virtue, but it functions in service of love rather than as the governing principle of ethics.

Comparison

Comparison

Tradition Definition Emphasis Role of Prudence Organizing Principle of Christian Ethics
Catholic (Aquinas) Right reason in action (recta ratio agibilium) Directs all the moral virtues and governs practical reason. Prudence orders the virtues toward the true good and ultimately toward God.
Lutheran Practical wisdom exercised within vocation under God’s Word. Helps believers make faithful decisions in earthly life but remains subordinate to faith and vocation. Faith working through love in one’s vocation under the authority of God’s Word.
Calvinist Sanctified practical wisdom under the authority of Scripture. Spirit-shaped discernment that applies Scripture wisely in obedience to God. Faith expressed through sanctification and obedience to Scripture for the glory of God.
Methodist Sanctified practical wisdom guided by Scripture and the Holy Spirit. Helps believers faithfully apply holy love as they grow in sanctification. Holy love expressed through sanctification, with prudence serving love.

New Advent Encyclopedia

“One of the four cardinal virtues. Definitions of it are plentiful from Aristotle down. His “recta ratio agibilium” has the merits of brevity and inclusiveness. Father Rickaby aptly renders it as “right reason applied to practice”. A fuller description and one more serviceable is this: an intellectual habit enabling us to see in any given juncture of human affairs what is virtuous and what is not, and how to come at the one and avoid the other. It is to be observed that prudence, whilst possessing in some sort an empire over all the moral virtues, itself aims to perfect not the will but the intellect in its practical decisions. Its function is to point out which course of action is to be taken in any round of concrete circumstances. It indicates which, here and now, is the golden mean wherein the essence of all virtue lies. It has nothing to do with directly willing the good it discerns. That is done by the particular moral virtue within whose province it falls. Prudence, therefore, has a directive capacity with regard to the other virtues. It lights the way and measures the arena for their exercise. The insight it confers makes one distinguish successfully between their mere semblance and their reality. It must preside over the eliciting of all acts proper to any one of them at least if they be taken in their formal sense. Thus, without prudence bravery becomes foolhardiness; mercy sinks into weakness, and temperance into fanaticism. But it must not be forgotten that prudence is a virtue adequately distinct from the others, and not simply a condition attendant upon their operation. Its office is to determine for each in practice those circumstances of time, place, manner, etc. which should be observed, and which the Scholastics comprise under the term medium rationis. So it is that whilst it qualifies immediately the intellect and not the will, it is nevertheless rightly styled a moral virtue.” 10

Catechism of the Catholic Church

CCC 1806

Prudence is the virtue that disposes practical reason to discern our true good in every circumstance and to choose the right means of achieving it; “the prudent man looks where he is going.” “Keep sane and sober for your prayers.” Prudence is “right reason in action,” writes St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle. It is not to be confused with timidity or fear, nor with duplicity or dissimulation. It is called auriga virtutum (the charioteer of the virtues); it guides the other virtues by setting rule and measure. It is prudence that immediately guides the judgment of conscience. The prudent man determines and directs his conduct in accordance with this judgment. With the help of this virtue we apply moral principles to particular cases without error and overcome doubts about the good to achieve and the evil to avoid. 11

Magisterium AI

The catechism presents prudence as the “right reason in action,” the first of the four cardinal virtues that orders the whole moral life and guides the other virtues. Prudence is tied to right reason applied to action and requires right appetite; if either is missing, prudence is lacking. [^mai1]

It is worthy to mention that “discernment” is not merely an internal sense of peace, but practical reason and moral desires being formed by grace over time.

Additionally, while doing this research, MAI insisted in mentioning that the concept of conscience is used in several denominations when referring to prudence or prudence-equivalent terms. In Thomistic/Catholic distinctions, conscience is not identical with prudence; conscience judges the moral quality of acts, while prudence is the right practical reason that guides choice. [^mai2]

ChatGPT

Prudence is one of the four cardinal virtues, defined as right reason applied to practice. It is an intellectual habit that enables a person to discern what is virtuous in any situation and how to pursue it. Unlike other moral virtues that perfect the will, prudence perfects the intellect in making practical decisions. It guides and measures the exercise of all other virtues, ensuring they are practiced rightly—without prudence, courage becomes recklessness, mercy becomes weakness, and temperance becomes fanaticism. Though it directs other virtues, prudence remains distinct, determining the proper time, place, and manner for moral actions, and is therefore rightly called a moral virtue itself. (Recommended source: [^jpieper])

Holy Family School of Faith 12

The Holy Family School of Faith (HFSoF), based in Aquinas Summa Theologica, define prudence as follows: “Prudence is the art of making good decisions.”

Furthermore, proposes the following steps to a prudent action:

  1. Counsel (Think or deliberation). Consider the different alternatives for your choice of action.
  2. Judgment (Make a choice). From the different alternatives select one that is objectively good and helps you achieve your goal.
  3. Command (Take action or execution). Execute your choice.

Several vices are associated with the virtue of prudence and its different steps.

  1. When thinking you might be tempted to be rash, and move to the second step without thinking.
  2. When making a choice you might be tempted to be rash as well, and move the third step without making an appropriate judgment of the possible alternatives. On the other side, you might get “stuck” in step two in a situation colloquially called “paralysis by analysis,” or over-deliberation; thinking too much about what choice to make without making up your mind.
  3. When taking action you might be tempted to procrastinate, in other words to not diligently start executing your selected action. Procrastination is related to the vice of negligence. On the other side, you might start but not finish. This is known as the vice of inconstancy.

In summary, bad habits and vices related to the virtue of prudence are:

  • Rashness
  • Over-deliveration
  • Negligence
  • Inconstancy

In a simplified Aristotelian framework, prudence may be viewed as lying between rashness and excessive caution or indecision.

Ideas

Prudence helps a person make a choice about an action to take. HFSoF teaches that there are three parts to prudence: deliberation, judgment, and action. The whole point is to make the right decision, at the right time, in the right measure. This leads to the need to determine “what is right.” Therefore, for prudence to be effective, the moral compass needs to be fine-tuned, and the person must be humble enough to recognize when they need more information from a reliable source. Before prudence, there must be training of the intellect as to what is right, what is wrong, and how to learn more about it. In terms of technology, several questions arise:

  • Is it prudent to build this technology?
  • Is it prudent to market this technology?
  • Is it prudent to market this technology this way?
  • Is it prudent to use this technology?
  • What is the prudent way to use this technology?
  • How much and how is it prudent to use this technology?

To be able to answer these questions, it is necessary to have minimal but enough information about the technology and a reasonable amount of moral training.

Instagram Case

“Instagram is a social media platform designed for sharing photos, videos, and stories with other users.” Initially, one might think that the technology was built to keep people in touch through their photos, videos, and stories. So, the intention to build this could have been morally correct. Now, I wonder, is this the way it is being used? Is it prudent for me to use this technology? To answer that question, I need to truly see into myself and answer the question, What do I want to use Instagram for? Is it to communicate? Is it to see what other people (potentially unknown) are up to? Is it to fuel my political beliefs? Is it just to spend hours in useless scrolling? Is it to numb my mind? Being honest about this could lead to potentially not using Instagram, or to limiting the network to people that the person actually knows and desires to follow. Gather all the pertinent and available information, and then discern from it what is the best moral course of action.

Integral Parts of Prudence 13

According to Thomas Aquinas, prudence is not a single, isolated ability but a virtue composed of several integral parts (partes integrales prudentiae). These are not independent virtues; rather, they are the dispositions or capacities that together enable a person to make prudent judgments. If one of these parts is lacking, prudence is impaired.

Integral Part Latin Summary
Memory memoria The habit of faithfully remembering past experiences and lessons so they can inform present decisions.
Understanding intellectus The ability to grasp correctly the present reality and the moral principles relevant to the situation at hand.
Docility docilitas The willingness to learn from the wisdom, experience, and counsel of others rather than relying solely on oneself.
Shrewdness solertia The ability to recognize quickly the best course of action when immediate decisions are required.
Reason ratio The careful process of comparing alternatives and judging which means best achieve the good.
Foresight (Providence) providentia The ability to anticipate future consequences and choose actions that lead toward the proper end.
Circumspection circumspectio The habit of considering all the relevant circumstances that may affect whether an action is appropriate.
Caution cautio The ability to recognize and avoid foreseeable moral dangers, temptations, or unintended harmful consequences.

These integral parts work together in forming prudent judgment. Memory recalls the past, understanding grasps the present, docility seeks wise counsel, reason deliberates, shrewdness enables quick judgment when necessary, foresight considers future consequences, circumspection evaluates the surrounding circumstances, and caution avoids foreseeable dangers. Together they enable prudence to guide moral action wisely.

Past
 │
 ▼
Memory
 │
 ▼
Understanding
 │
 ▼
Docility
 │
 ▼
Reason
 │
 ├─────────────► Shrewdness
 │                 (when time is short)
 ▼
Foresight
 │
 ▼
Circumspection
 │
 ▼
Caution
 │
 ▼
Prudent Decision

Seattle Pacific University Virtue Framework

Wisdom as an intellectually humble, open-minded discernment that balances the virtues and exercises them appropriately in the service of God and God’s creation. It is a virtue directed to oneself, one own thinking, urges, and emotions. 

References

(Book II, Chapter 2, 15) [^inst2]: Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edited by John T. McNeill. Translated by Battles Ford Battles. Library of Christian Classics edition. Vol. 1 and 2. Westminster John Knox Press, 1960. https://ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes/institutes. (Book II, Chapter 2, 13-17) [^cori]: Wesley, John. “The Case of Reason Impartially Considered.” The Works of John Wesley. Edited by Thomas Jackson. Vol. 11. Baker Book House, 1986. https://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/the-works-of-john-wesley-vol-11-the-jackson-edition-theology-and-prose/the-case-of-reason-impartially-considered/. [^sso]: Wesley, John. Sermons on Several Occasions. John Wesley, 1746. https://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/sermons-on-several-occasions/. [^mai1]: Kevin O’Reilly, O.P. “God, the University, and Human Flourishing.” In Nova et Vetera, English Edition, vol. 14, no. 4. Steubenville, OH: St. Paul Center for Biblical Theology, 2016. Sebastian Walshe, O.Praem. “The Formation and Exercise of Conscience in Private and Public Matters.” In Nova et Vetera, English Edition, vol. 16, no. 1. Steubenville, OH: St. Paul Center for Biblical Theology, 2018. [^mai2]: Hütter, Reinhard. “Conscience “Truly So Called” and Its Counterfeit: John Henry Newman and Thomas Aquinas on What Conscience Is and Why It Matters.” In Nova et Vetera, English Edition, vol. 12, no. 3. Steubenville, OH: St. Paul Center for Biblical Theology, 2014. [^jpieper]: Pieper, Josef. The Four Cardinal Virtues. Translated by Richard and Clara Winston. University of Notre Dame Press, 1966.

  1. Merriam Webster: Prudence ↩

  2. This summary synthesizes Lutheran ethical themes rather than quoting a single confessional statement. It is based primarily on The Book of Concord (especially the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Articles IV and XVIII, and the Formula of Concord, Solid Declaration II), Martin Luther’s Temporal Authority: To What Extent It Should Be Obeyed (1523), Gustaf Wingren’s Luther on Vocation (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1957), and Oswald Bayer’s Martin Luther’s Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008). ↩

  3. Book of Concord ↩

  4. Luther, Martin. “Temporal Authority: To What Extent It Should Be Obeyed.” Pages 81–129 in Luther’s Works, Volume 45: The Christian in Society II. Edited by Walther I. Brandt and Helmut T. Lehmann. Fortress Press, 1962. Temporal Authority: To What Extent It Should be Obeyed (Taylor Francis) ↩

  5. “CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Prudence,” n.d. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12517b.htm. ↩

  6. Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edited by John T. McNeill. Translated by Battles Ford Battles. Library of Christian Classics edition. Vol. 1 and 2. Westminster John Knox Press, 1960. https://ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes/institutes. ↩

  7. Sytsma, David S. “John Calvin and Virtue Ethics.” Journal of Religious Ethics 48.3 (2020): 519–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/jore.12324. ↩

  8. Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edited by John T. McNeill. Translated by Battles Ford Battles. Library of Christian Classics edition. Vol. 1 and 2. Westminster John Knox Press, 1960. Institutes of the Christian Religion, Westminster Assembly. The Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. Presbyterian Church in America, 2003. https://thewestminsterstandard.org/the-westminster-confession/. ↩

  9. Wesley, John. The Character of a Methodist. Printed by W. Strahan, 1742. The Character of a Methodist ↩

  10. New Advent Encyclopedia: Prudence ↩

  11. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1806 ↩

  12. The Three Steps to Prudence, Prudence Conscience and Compassion, Prudence ↩

  13. Summa Theologiae II–II, Questions 47–56 ↩